In May of 1994, United Nations (UN) member states met in Yokohama, Japan, for the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction. The Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation, containing the Principles, the Strategy, and the Plan of Action were adopted at this World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction.
The following ten Principles were adopted:
Disaster Reduction frameworks continued to develop In December of 1999, when the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction or “UNISDR” was created to respond to a need for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction within the UN's development and other work areas. It serves as the UN system focal point for coordination of disaster reduction and ensures synergies among UN system and regional organizations in disaster reduction activities, and socio-economic and humanitarian activity fields. 1
At the World Conference on Disaster Reduction held during January of 2005 in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, a framework was adopted and presented as: Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. During this conference, the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was adopted by 168 United Nation Member States and is the first plan to explain, describe and detail the work that is required from all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses.
The following five Priorities for Action were adopted:
Figure 1.1.1 Hyogo Framework Priorities for Action
DRR or Disaster Risk Reduction, requires a strong national and local commitment to save lives and livelihoods threatened by natural hazards. Natural hazards must be considered in public and private sector decision-making in the same way that environmental and social impact assessments are currently required. Countries must therefore develop or modify policies, laws, and organizational arrangements, as well as plans, programmes, and projects, to integrate DRR. They must also allocate sufficient resources to support and maintain them. This includes creating effective, multi-sector national platforms to provide policy guidance and to coordinate activities; Integrating DRR into development policies and planning, such as poverty reduction strategies; and, ensuring community participation, so that local needs are met.
The United States,‘a nation committed to finding strength in the face of unpredictable and devastating disasters’, has the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Their core values are compassion, integrity, fairness and respect. FEMA’s History includes the following seven events: 1
The first legislative act of federal disaster relief in U.S. history followed a devastating fire in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in December 1802. The destruction of large areas of the city’s seaport threatened commerce in the newly founded nation. In 1803, U.S. Congress provided relief to affected Portsmouth merchants by suspending bond payments for several months.
President Carter signed Executive Order 12127, effective April 1, 1979, establishing FEMA. Shortly after, in signing Executive Order 12148 on July 20, 1979, President Carter gave the agency the dual mission of emergency management and civil defense.
The agency’s authorities were further defined and expanded by the Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Amendments of 1988, which amended the Disaster Relief Act of 1974 and renamed it the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act). The Stafford Act provided clear direction for emergency management and established the current statutory framework for disaster response and recovery through presidential disaster declarations.
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 changed the face of homeland security and emergency management and drove major statute and policy changes to reorganize the federal government. In 2002, President W. Bush signed the Homeland Security Act, leading to the creation of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The department was created on March 1, 2003 and united FEMA and 21 other organizations.
In August 2005 the historic Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Mississippi, causing large-scale devastation along the Gulf Coast, displacing families to all 50 states and resulting in billions in losses to infrastructure and the economy. Congress passed the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 which established FEMA as a distinct agency within DHS, defined FEMA’s primary mission, and designated the FEMA Administrator as the principal advisor to the President, the Homeland Security Council, and the Secretary of Homeland Security for all matters relating to emergency management in the United States.
Federal capabilities were tested once again in 2012 when Hurricane Sandy affected the entire East Coast. The storm’s effects were extensive, leaving millions without power, destroying hundreds of thousands of homes, and causing billions in damages. Subsequently, Congress passed the Sandy Recovery Improvement Act of 2013 to streamline the recovery of public infrastructure and to allow Federally recognized tribes to directly request a Presidential declaration.
In 2017, the nation faced a historic Atlantic hurricane season and extreme wildfire disasters. The unprecedented and rapid succession of disasters transformed emergency management and focused efforts to build a culture of preparedness, ready the nation for catastrophic disasters, and reduce FEMA’s complexity. Congress provided the agency with expanded authorities to further these goals by enacting the Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018. The legislation is a landmark law that highlights the federal government’s commitment to increasing investments in mitigation and building the capabilities of state, local, tribal and territorial partners.
Identify, assess, and monitor disaster risks – and enhance early warning. To reduce vulnerability to natural hazards, countries and communities must know the risks that they face, and take actions based on that knowledge.
Understanding risk requires investment in scientific, technical, and institutional capabilities to observe, record, research, analyze, forecast, model and map natural hazards. Tools need to be developed and disseminated: statistical information about disaster events, risk maps, disaster vulnerability and risk indicators are essential. Most importantly, countries need to use this knowledge to develop effective early warning systems, appropriately adapted to the unique circumstances of the people at risk. Early warning is widely accepted as a crucial component of disaster risk reduction. When effective early warning systems provide information about a hazard to a vulnerable population, and plans to act, thousands of lives can be saved.
Earthquake early warning systems are in use in Japan, Mexico, Romania, China, Turkey, Italy, and Taiwan. and the United States.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) manages ShakeAlert®, an early warning system for the West Coast of the United States. 1
Figure 1.1.1.2 ShakeAlert
‘The most important component of an earthquake early warning system is a dense network of seismic and geodetic stations with robust communications. Future development of the warning system will include the installation of larger numbers of seismic stations and upgrading station telecommunications. The current seismic station densities in California are currently much lower than the Japanese public alert system. New sensors are needed in California to reduce earthquake detection times allowing warnings to be issued faster.’ 2
Use knowledge, innovation, and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels. Disasters can be reduced substantially if people are well informed about measures they can take to reduce vulnerability - and if they are motivated to act. Key activities to increase awareness of disaster prevention include providing relevant information on disaster risks and means of protection, especially for citizens in high-risk areas; Strengthening networks and promoting dialogue and cooperation among disaster experts, technical and scientific specialists, planners, and other stakeholders; Including disaster risk reduction subject matter in formal, non-formal, and informal education and training activities; developing or strengthening community-based disaster risk management programmes; and, working with the media in disaster risk reduction.
Two tools to strengthen knowledge, awareness, and reduce risk are Firecast and FloodCast.
Firecast is a forest and fire monitoring and forecast system, provided and managed by Conservation International (https://www.conservation.org), and currently operating in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Madagascar, Peru, and Suriname. This system is a fully automated analysis and alert system that delivers a range of near real-time (NRT) monitoring products tailored to a user’s specific needs. These include simple text-based emails containing the coordinates of active fires, or risk of fire within a user’s specified area of interest (i.e., protected areas, areas of high biodiversity importance, different vegetation and land cover types, administrative units, or user-defined regions).” 1
Using satellites from The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) the system can detect ‘deforestation in action — alerting about immediate threats and revealing trends of anthropogenic change. 2 The daily monitoring capabilities of these satellite also reveal trends in earth’s dynamics and can indicate increasing severity of drought conditions.’ 3
Figure 1.1.1.3 Global fire density observed from MODIS August 2019
The other tool, FloodCast, is a phase IV research project in the United States, titled FloodCast, Phase IV: A Framework for Enhanced Flood Event Decision Making for Transportation Resilience, that ‘aims to strengthen United States DOT flood response capabilities through the integration of real-time actionable flood forecast information into transportation asset management and emergency operations. A substantial enhancement to the existing DOT planning and response toolkit can be achieved by incorporating dynamic inundation mapping that allows for the rapid translation of stream flow predictions of anticipated events to flood elevation, inundation extent and flood depth products along the hydrologic network.
FloodCast attempts to achieve this through coordinating with relevant stakeholders, setting standards for data management, developing methods for flood forecasting processes, delivering incident projection information to DOTs, and providing guidance for the application of outputs in various use cases. A successful FloodCast system will serve to protect human health and safety in the event of extreme weather conditions, while also informing and enhancing longer-term maintenance, planning, and investment decisions.’ 4
Reduce the underlying risk factors. Vulnerability to natural hazards is increased in many ways, for example: locating communities in hazard-prone areas, such as flood plains; destroying forests and wetlands, thereby harming the capacity of the environment to withstand hazards; building public facilities and housing unable to withstand the impacts of hazards; and not having social and financial safety mechanisms in place. Countries can build resilience to disasters by investing in simple, well-known measures to reduce risk and vulnerability. Disasters can be reduced by applying relevant building standards to protect critical infrastructure, such as schools, hospitals, and homes. Vulnerable buildings can be retrofitted to a higher degree of safety. Protecting precious ecosystems, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, allow them to act as natural storm barriers.
To reduce risk and gather subject matter expertise in one web location concerning vulnerability to natural hazards and climate resilience in the United States, the US has assembled a Climate Resilience Toolkit (https://toolkit.climate.gov). The purpose of the Toolkit ‘is to improve people’s ability to understand and manage their climate-related risks and opportunities, and to help them make their communities and businesses more resilient to extreme events.’ 1, 2
Figure 1.1.1.4 Steps to Resilience
Strengthen disaster preparedness for an effective emergency response. Being prepared and ready to act, with contingency plans in place including conducting risk assessments, before investing in development at all levels of society will enable people to become more resilient to natural hazards.
Preparedness involves many types of activities and may include the following:
1. Development and regular testing of contingency plans such as:
- Emergency Operation Plans
- Operation Center Management Plans
- Vulnerability / Risk Assessment Plans
- Winter Operations Plans
- Power Shut off Plans
- Pandemic Response Plans
- Emergency Work Guidance Plans
- Continuity of Operations Plans
- Continuity of Government Plans
2. Establishment of emergency funds
3. Development of coordinated regional approaches
4. Establishment of training, exercises, and drills
Disaster preparedness includes continuous dialogue between response agencies, planners, policymakers, and development organizations as well as training and regular exercises, including evacuation drills, to ensure rapid and effective disaster response. Preparedness plans also help to cope with the many small and medium-sized disasters that repeatedly occur in so many communities.
The United States utilizes a National Response Framework (NRF) ‘…that provides foundational emergency management doctrine for how the Nation (United States) responds to all types of incidents. The NRF is built on scalable, flexible, and adaptable concepts identified in the National Incident Management System (NIMS) to align key roles and responsibilities across the Nation (United States).” 1
Training for emergencies, such as Incident Command System (ICS) training as well as specific emergency specific training geared towards a specific credible threat, such as an earthquake, hurricane, tornado, severe storm, severe snow, wildfire, drought, tsunami, flood, avalanche, train derailment, or civil disobedience is a necessary part of preparedness.
Natural and manmade hazards cannot be prevented, but it is possible to reduce their impacts by having an exercised plan in place.
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (formerly UNISDR) is the United Nations focal point for disaster risk reduction, overseeing the implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, supporting countries in its implementation, monitoring and sharing what works in reducing existing risk and preventing the creation of new risk. 1
Figure 1.1.2-1 Sendai Framework Targets
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction was adopted at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan, on March 18, 2015. Seven global targets and four priorities of action are to be achieved between 2015 and 2030. The UN creates a Global Assessment Report (GAR) every two years to chart the global progress of the Sendai Framework.
“The Sendai Framework is the roadmap for how we make our communities safer and more resilient, it works hand in hand with the other 2030 Agenda agreements, including The Paris Agreement on Climate Change, The Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development, the New Urban Agenda, and ultimately the Sustainable Development Goals.” 2
2. Number of people affected by disasters
3. Economic loss in relation to global Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
4. Damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services
1. The number of countries with disaster risk reduction strategies
2. International cooperation to developing countries
3. Availability to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster risk information and assessments
Priority 1 of the Sendai Framework states that “Policies and practices for disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment. Such knowledge can be leveraged for the purpose of pre-disaster risk assessment, for prevention and mitigation and for the development and implementation of appropriate preparedness and effective response to disasters.” 1
Risk assessment is an important part of this priority. “New Zealand has developed their first national climate change risk assessment, helping the Government identify where it needs to prioritize action. The assessment:
Figure 1.1.2.1 New Zealand Risk Assessment Stages
Priority 2 of the Sendai Framework states that “Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is of great importance for an effective and efficient management of disaster risk. Clear vision, plans, competence, guidance, and coordination within and across sectors, as well as participation of relevant stakeholders, are needed. Strengthening disaster risk governance for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation is therefore necessary and fosters collaboration and partnership across mechanisms and institutions for the implementation of instruments relevant to disaster risk reduction and sustainable development.” 1
Key stakeholder coordination within and across sectors can be facilitated using resource contact sheets containing the agency name, contact name, position, and contact information.
Here is a sample template from the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) publication, Managing Catastrophic Transportation Emergencies: A Guide for Transportation Executives. 2
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Homeland Security Coordinator |
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Emergency Management Coordinator |
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Emergency Support Function ESF-1 Coordinator |
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District Contacts |
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District A |
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Federal Government |
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U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) |
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Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) |
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Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) | ||||
Local FHWA Contact |
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Interstate |
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State A |
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Other organization as appropriate |
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Local |
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County/Parish A |
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Sheriff's Office |
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Fire Department |
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Other Partners |
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Priority 3 of the Sendai Framework states that “Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural and non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the environment. These can be drivers of innovation, growth, and job creation. Such measures are cost-effective and instrumental to save lives, prevent and reduce losses and ensure effective recovery and rehabilitation.” 1
Disaster financial planning is essential for returning, or bouncing back, from a disaster as quickly as possible. In the United States, “Congress authorized in Title 23, United States Code, Section 125, a special program from the Highway Trust Fund for the repair or reconstruction of Federal-aid highways and roads on Federal lands which have suffered serious damage as a result of (1) natural disasters or (2) catastrophic failures from an external cause. This program, commonly referred to as the emergency relief or ER program, supplements the commitment of resources by States, their political subdivisions, or other Federal agencies to help pay for unusually heavy expenses resulting from extraordinary conditions.” 2 , 3
Figure 1.1.2.3 Map of Allocation of Emergency Relief (ER) for Federal-aid Highways (ERFA) Funds and Allotment of Emergency Relief for Federally owned Roads (ERFO) Funds, Fiscal Year (FY) 2022
Priority 4 of the Sendai Framework states that: “The steady growth of disaster risk, including the increase of people and assets exposure, combined with the lessons learned from past disasters, indicates the need to further strengthen disaster preparedness for response, take action in anticipation of events, integrate disaster risk reduction in response preparedness and ensure that capacities are in place for effective response and recovery at all levels. Empowering women and persons with disabilities to publicly lead and promote gender equitable and universally accessible response, recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction approaches is key. Disasters have demonstrated that the recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction phase, which needs to be prepared ahead of a disaster, is a critical opportunity to “Build Back Better”, including through integrating disaster risk reduction into development measures, making nations and communities resilient to disasters.” 1
Lessons learned from past disasters are a key feature of building back better. In the United States, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) will reimburse States through it’s Emergency Relief (ER) program for Betterments.
“Betterments are added protective features, such as rebuilding of roadways at a higher elevation or lengthening of bridges, or changes which modify the function or character of a highway facility, from what existed prior to the disaster or catastrophic failure, such as additional lanes or added access control. Betterments must be clearly economically justified to receive ER funding and almost always have a higher initial cost, so the justification must be based on sufficiently reducing future ER eligible damage.” 2 Economical justification depends on the reduction of future damage.
“The following items would likely increase the resiliency of a repair and thus may be eligible for ER funding; provided they are economically justified:”